AN INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF MOTHER BOARD

AN INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF MOTHER BOARD

In personal computers, a motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the system, providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board.It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.
Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer was usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The Central Processing Unit, memory and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplane.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard (see below). In the late 1980s, motherboards began to include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. As of the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards supported a full range of audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics card as a separate component.
The early pioneers of motherboard manufacturing were Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK, Hauppauge, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, DFI, and a number of Taiwan-based manufacturers.
The most popular computers such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third-party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment
The term mainboard is applied to devices with a single board and no additional expansions or capability. In modern terms this would include embedded systems and controlling boards in televisions, washing machines, etc. A motherboard specifically refers to a printed circuit board with expansion capability.

HARD DISK

HARD DISK...

A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile, random access device for digital data. It features rotating rigid platters on a motor-driven spindle within a protective enclosure. Data is magnetically read from and written to the platter by read/write heads that float on a film of air above the platters.
Introduced by IBM in 1956, hard disk drives have fallen in cost and physical size over the years while dramatically increasing in capacity. Hard disk drives have been the dominant device for secondary storage of data in general purpose computers since the early 1960s.They have maintained this position because advances in their areal recording density have kept pace with the requirements for secondary storage.Today's HDDs operate on high-speed serial interfaces; i.e., serial ATA (SATA) or serial attached SCSI (SAS).

A COMPLETE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A COMPLETE COMPUTER SYSTEM..

mainly the computer system consists of monitor,cpu,keyboard,mouse,speakers....

this is the basic components of a complete computer system....

the computer system an electrical device which is used to multiple purposes, in technical fields,

this vast technology is increasing rapidly and demanding in upcoming generation....

all types of information is shared or available for human beings with the help of this machine

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF C.P.U

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF C.P.U

Processor Organization


  

To understand the organization of the CPU, let us consider the requirements placed on the CPU, the things that it must do:

  

    * Fetch instruction: The CPU reads an instruction from memory.
    * Interpret instruction: The instruction is decoded to determine what action is required.
    * Fetch data: The execution of an instruction may require reading data from memory or an I/O module.
    * Process data: The execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or logical operation on data.
    * Write data: The results of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O module.


  

To do these things, it should be clear that the CPU needs to store some data temporarily. It must remember the location of the last instruction so that it can know where to get the next instruction. It needs to store instructions and data temporar­ily while an instruction is being executed. In other words, the CPU needs a small internal memory.

  

Figure 1 is a simplified view of a CPU, indicating its connection to the rest of the system via the system bus. You will recall (Lecture 1) that the major components of the CPU are an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and a control unit (CU). The ALU does the actual computation or processing of data. The con­trol unit controls the movement of data and instructions into and out of the CPU and controls the operation of the ALU. In addition, the figure shows a minimal internal memory, consisting of a set of storage locations, called registers.

Data Recovery Software And Specialists

Many people are unaware that just because their computer hardware has become damaged in some way does not mean that the data stored on the hard drive is irretrievably lost. There are in fact a number of companies that specialize in data recovery, no matter what the reason for the loss of information on the hard drive in the first place.
There are a number of different types of processes that are used to recover lost information on a variety of different computers and other data storage devices. These processes can differ according to the type of device as well as the operating system that was used on the device. One of these lost data processes is to restore sections or partitions of data that may have been deleted or lost whether intentionally or accidentally.
Recovering Deleted or Lost Partitions
The recovery of data partitions relies mainly on the use of a software program that finds the empty sections and then repairs or replaces the information that has been damaged, lost or deleted. This type of data recovery is aimed at recovery that was not caused by physical damage to the computer although it can be beneficial in some cases where physical damage to the hardware has resulted in deleted or lost partitions.
There are a number of different operating systems that have software programs designed to aid in the recovery of deleted or lost partitions. Some of these operating systems include DOS, Windows, Mac, UNIX and Linux as well as a few others that are commonly used on computers and other data storage devices.
Mac Recovery
Although there are many websites on the internet that offer free Mac data recovery software it is not recommended to use these programs unless you know what you are doing. Incorrect usage of some of these software programs can result in the permanent deletion or loss of partitions or other system information that is important to the functioning of your operating system. Rather find professionals who offer expert Mac data recovery and be sure that you are doing no damage in the process of trying to recover lost or deleted data on your own.
Windows Recovery
Windows has a great data recovery tool that you can either download or purchase at a nominal cost. However, depending on the extent of the lost data and the damage that has been caused to the operating system as well as other systems on the hard drive it may be advisable to use professional data recovery. There are also different types of recovery and repair programs to select from so if you are unsure which will be most suitable to meet your requirements, opt for expert recovery of deleted or lost partitions.
Linux Recovery
Linux also has a fully automated data recovery software program that can be obtained at a cost. Because of the automated nature of the program it is very user-friendly and many Linux users find that they are able to initiate and process data recovery successfully without help. However, it is important to know what you are doing before initiating the process which could lead to the irretrievable loss of some or all data while the Linux operating system is fully restored to its previous operation.
Professional data recovery is rather affordable when compared with the cost of purchasing these types of software packages. The rates for recovering lost, damaged or deleted data are determined by three things. The first part of a quote will be comprised of the amount of time the technician is expected to work on recovering the data. The second part of the costs relate to the percentage of data that can be recovered within the time frame.
The last data recovery cost involves physical damage to the hardware where the price of any necessary replacement parts will need to be calculated. Always keep in mind that a specialist in recovering data should never bill you for any time that has been spent working on the recovery process if not data was recoverable at all from the hard drive or other data storage device. This makes getting professional data recovery rather than repair and recovery software much more cost-effective.

Backing Up Your Computer

Your PC repair service can repair almost any damage you do to your computer within reason. That means repairing corrupt files, damaged hardware and viruses, and it means helping you to make your computer run faster and be safer in the future. However while your PC repair service can most probably fix your computer, what they might not be able to do is to do so without losing important files. If you have crucial files on your computer then some of the methods that PC repair companies use will often mean that you lose your files - for instance if they opt to reformat your hard drive. At the same time if they can't fix your computer, which can happen on occasion, then this will mean you need to get a new one and of course that will often mean you lose the files that were on the old one.
Thus backing up your information is incredibly important, and you should do this regularly and often. There are many ways you can do this. Here are a couple of your options.
External Hard drive: These are hard drives that plug into your computer. These usually have a huge amount of storage space so you can back up a lot of data onto them. The downside is that they are quite bulky however, relatively expensive and also their physical nature means that they can be broken or lost.
Flash Cards: Flash cards and other memory cards are great for backing up data because they are highly cheap and highly portable and these days almost as large as hard drives. The downside of flash cards is that they are easy to lose and quite delicate and so easy to break. If you use this method then keep them safe.
Other Computers: Having your information on more than one computer is a simple way to keep the info safe, though again the information is in the same room and you should avoid keeping your back up PC on the same network.
Online: Online back up is a very logical way to back up your data. The joy of online back up is that it is online and thereby not a physical device. This means that you can't 'lose' it or 'damage' it, and the hosting company looking after your files will have many fail safes in case the server has troubles.
The best solution is to use multiple of these options to keep your data safe. This way if you do need PC repair your information will be safe on at least one of these devices. The last remaining problem is to remember to back up your information and if you want to do this then you need to do is to use software that can automatically back up your data (for instance some word processors have an option to continually back up files in a pre-selected location), or to give yourself a set time when you regularly back up all of your data - perhaps at the end of the day before you switch off, or once a week.
By using these methods it is possible to always have a relevant back up of your data. Tech support can help you with more back up solutions, and then you will be ready if ever you need PC repair.

Network Cabling and Installation

Have you ever wondered what it is that connects computers and networks to one another? Network cable in conjunction with the associated hardware (network switches, hubs, demarcation equipment) is responsible for computers being able to connect and transfer data across intranets (internal network) and the internet. Network cabling today is used for many other purposes besides computer networking. It can be used to carry video for security camera systems as well as video for cable TV and AV (Audio/Visual) applications. Network cabling is also used as control cable in Building Maintenance Systems and Access Control Systems. There are several different types of cables that are used for this purpose, including unshielded twisted pair, shielded twisted pair, fiber optic and coaxial. In some cases, only one type of cable is used in a network, while in other cases, many different types are used. Wireless systems are becoming more and more popular but always remember you still need network cabling for the wireless system. There is still two things that make network cabling better than a wireless network: it is much more secure and reliable.
Understanding Cable Type
Before you can really understand how cable networking works, you need to know about the various cables and how they work. Each cable is different, and the type of cable used for a particular network needs to be related to the size, topology and protocol of the network. Here is a rundown of the cables that are most commonly used for network cabling:
Unshielded/Shielded Twisted Pair - This is the type of cable that is used for many Ethernet networks. There are four sets of pairs of wires inside the cable. There is a thick plastic separator that keeps each pair isolated through the run of cable. Each pair of wires are twisted so there will be no interference from other devices that are on the same network. The pairs are also twisted at different intervals so they will not cause interference between themselves. In an application where there is a lot of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), such as a mechanical space, you may choose to use shielded twisted pair, which has an outer shielding that adds extra protection from EMI. Category 5e, 6, 6A and 7 are the general choices today. Twisted pair cable is limited to 295' on a horizontal run. Twisted pair cable is used for many applications. Standard station cabling for computers and VOIP phones, wireless access points, network cameras, access control and building maintenance systems are just a few. This is one of the most reliable types of cables, and when used, network failures are less common than when other cables are used.
Fiber Optic - Fiber optic cable is primarily used as backbone cable although it is being used more and more as station cable (think FIOS). By backbone cable I mean it connects Telecommunication Rooms within a space to each other. Fiber optic cable has huge broadband capacities which allow it to carry large amounts of information as super fast speeds. Fiber cables can cover great distances(hundreds of meters) as opposed to copper cable. Because these cables must work so hard and the information travels such distances, there are many layers of protective coating on fiber optic cables. Fiber cables transmit light as opposed to electrical current. Fiber optic cable requires much less power than high speed copper does. Fiber optic cable is a great choice for high speed reliable communications.
Coaxial Cable - Coaxial cable usually falls under the scope of work of the network cabling installation contractor. Coax will be used for the cable television locations within the space you are cabling. The service provider will drop off the outdoor cable at the point of entry. The contractor will run an extension (usually RG-11) to the local telecom closet within the space. The individual station runs(RG-6) will terminate on a splitter to connect to the service cable. The center of this type of cable has a copper conductor and a plastic coating that acts as an insulator between the conductor and the metal shield. This cable is covered with coating, which can vary in thickness. The thicker the coating, the less flexible it is going to be. There are a few types of terminations for coax. Compression, crimp and twist on are the three types of terminations. The best method is compression as long as they are performed correctly. Crimp terminations are also reliable and require the right tool for the particular connector you are using. I would not recommend twist on as they are not reliable and prone to problems. A few types of coax connectors are F connectors, BNC connectors and RCA connector.
Network Cabling Components
Patch panel - This is the panel where all of the station cables terminate within the Telecommunications Room. They are usually mounted on a wall mount or floor mount telecommunications rack. Typically there are 24, 48 or 72 ports on a patch panel. There are a few different styles such as angled or straight. Panels also have the option of having the 110 type pins attached to the back of the panel or you can terminate jacks and snap them into the empty panel.
Data Jack - This is the connector where each individual cable is terminated out at the station side. The jacks are snapped into a faceplate ranging from 1 to 8 ports typically. Data jacks can be terminated in a 568A or 568B pinout. Check with the customer or designer for the correct pinout.
RJ 45 Connector - The RJ-45 connector is installed on the end of a network cable. They are 8 pin connectors. The most common place to find the RJ 45 is on a cable terminating at a wireless access point. The RJ 45 is a male connector and would plug into the port on the WAP.
Wireless Access Points - These are devices that transmit network access wirelessly. Typically they are mounted on the ceiling or wall. A wireless survey would need to be performed to maximize the correct placement of WAP's. Contrary to popular belief wireless devices STILL need to be fed with network cabling.
Cable Supports - (Commonly called J-Hooks) Cable supports are mounted in the ceiling as a support structure for your cable bundles. Main path cable supports should be mounted to the concrete deck ceiling within the space. You are no longer permitted to hang j-hooks from ceiling supports, electrical or plumbing pipe or any other system infrastructure.
Wire Managers - Wire managers are installed between patch panels and switches to manage patch cables. They serve a very important purpose as they keep law and order in a Telecommunications Room. Nothing irks me more than finishing a brand new beautiful install and having the IT group come in and not use the wire managers. It ruins the aesthetics of the job. In addition it sets a bad precedence from the birth of the Telecommunications Room that others are sure to follow.
Firestop Sleeves - Firestop sleeves are a vital part of any network cabling installation these days. Gone are the days of just banging holes into sheetrock and passing cables through. When you penetrate any firewall on a job you must install a firestop sleeve. There are specific products made for this. EZ Path and Hilti both make excellent versions in varying sizes. You can install a sleeve of EMT pipe through a wall also as long as you use firestop putty or firestop silicone to seal off all openings. This can save lives and minimize damage in the event of a fire.
Cable Labels - All cables and termination points should have a unique label. This makes installation, maintenance and troubleshooting much simpler. For a professional all labels should be computer generated. Hand written labels are just not acceptable today.
Network Cabling Installation
Network cabling installation drawings should be designed by a BICSI certified RCDD (Registered Communication Distribution Designer). There are a few things that need to be considered.
The type of cabling solution to be implemented - The cabling vendor or customer will need to select a solutions manufacturer. Siemon, Leviton, Ortronics and Panduit are some of the more common choices. The type of cabling solution will need to be discussed. Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 6A or Cat 7 are the copper types of network cables that can be offered. The style of the racks, data jacks, faceplates, patch panels and wire managers will also need to be discussed and chosen. Make sure this is done early as lead times can be long for certain manufactures and styles.
The location of the network equipment and racks - The room where they are housed is commonly referred to as MDF (Main Distribution Frame) Data Room, Telco Room or Telecommunications Room. All cables runs need to be within 100 meters. If cable runs are going to be over 100 meters you will need to add a second Telecommunications Room. This is also called an IDF(intermediate Distribution Frame). The IDF will often need to be connected to the MDF via fiber optic backbone cabling. The MDF will house the service provider feed from the street, which will feed the network. Typically you will also find security equipment and access control equipment here. It is a better design to have all the low voltage systems housed in one location. Measure all equipment and racks that will be required based on cabling quantities. Include access control, security, electrical panels and air conditioning units. The room needs to be large enough to accommodate all equipment.
The pathways of the cable trunks above the ceilings - Cable paths need to steer clear of electrical light fixtures or other sources of EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference). Keep cable paths in accessible areas of the ceiling for future cable runs and ease of maintenance. All paths should be run above hallways or corridors and cables enter individual rooms on sweeping 90 degree turns. Install a firestop sleeve or putty for all penetrations of a fire wall. Be careful when pulling cables so as not to bend them beyond their bend radius. This will cause a failure when testing. DO NOT tie cables to ceiling hangers or sprinkler pipes. They need to be tied at least every 5' on horizontal runs, and even more on vertical runs. J-hook supports should be anchored to the concrete deck above. Use Velcro wraps every 5' or so when finished running cable to give your cable bundles a great looking finish.
Terminating Network Cabling - When terminating cable make sure to check the floor-plan numbering to each cable label to make sure the cables are in the correct spot. If something is not matching leave that cable on the side to be "toned out" later on. Use a cable stripping & cutting tool to get a uniform cut on the cable jacket and to be sure you won't nick the copper conductors inside. Always keep each pair twisted as tight as possible right up to the pins where you terminate the cable. This will ensure you won't get a NEXT or Return Loss failure. Before you start any terminations inquire weather the pinout will be 568A or 568B. This will determine which order the conductors are terminated in and is very important before you start. All cables should be dressed nicely and uniform. The project manager should make a termination chart of the patch panels for the technician that will perform the terminations. This will show the back of the patch panels and where each cable gets terminated with it's label number.
Testing your network cabling - There are a number of cabling testers out on the market. The tester we prefer to use is the Fluke DTX-1800 Cable Analyzer. This is an amazing tool. It will give you a detailed report of each cable that is tested. It tests for wiremap, insertion loss, NEXT, PSNEXT, ACR-N, Insertion Loss and many others. The best part about these new age testers is their troubleshooting skills. The Fluke will tell you where a cable is damaged and which particular conductor is damaged. If you terminated a pair out of sequence the tester will tell you which pair and on what end the error was made. The Fluke does everything but fix it for you! Most clients want to see verified test results. The new testers will provide cleaned up PDF files of the test results. These can be emailed directly to the client.
Hopefully this guide has helped you to better understand the complete system of network cabling. It is an ever changing field and we need to keep up on the latest technology to stay ahead of the curve and offer our clients the best cabling solutions. Please add your comments, suggestions or questions. Please sign up to our email list for the latest cabling news and our shared experiences from the field. You will also receive special offers on future training products before they are released. Thanks for your support.